Issue

Vol. 38 No. 10 (2026): Vol 38, Issue 10, 2026

Copyright (c) 2026 Adewale Folayan, Bila Patel

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Sustainable Microalgae Biodiesel Production using Heterogeneous Agro-Wastes Catalyst on Silicon Oxide Support

https://doi.org/10.14233/ajchem.2026.36045
Folayan Adewale Johnson
Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, College of Science and Engineering, University of South Africa, Florida, Johannesburg, South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2479-2909
Bilal Patel
Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, College of Science and Engineering, University of South Africa, Florida, Johannesburg, South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1681-0249

Corresponding Author(s) : Folayan Adewale Johnson

folayaj@unisa.ac.za

Asian Journal of Chemistry, Vol. 38 No. 10 (2026): Vol 38, Issue 10, 2026

Abstract

In this recent study, Nannochloropsis microalgae biodiesel was produced through heterogeneous catalytic transesterification process using agro-wastes catalyst on silicon oxide support. The CaO/SiO2 catalyst was prepared by calcination of rice-husks and subsequent precipitation and re-calcination with calcium hydroxide powder at 750 ºC. The Nannochloropsis microalgae strains were cultured in a 10 L capacity, vertical-column photobioreactor with a glass-cylindrical vessel transparent column for easier penetration of light and extraction of lipids was carried out in a bio-based automatic Soxhlet extractor (model BFA-1S). The crystals’ structure, surface morphological characteristics and functional group analysis of the supported catalysts were evaluated by standard analytical techniques. The microalgae have a high lipid content of 48.15 ± 2.50. The CaO/SiO2 catalyst showed a high biodiesel yield of 97.15% and superior ester quality. This is attributed to its superior structural orientation, larger pores and excellent close-packed architecture, as confirmed by XRD and SEM analyses, leading to increased surface area, higher active-site density, enhanced mass-transfer kinetics and improved catalytic efficiency. Microalgae biodiesel produced using the CaO/SiO2 catalyst showed low free (0.004%) and total glycerine (0.015%) levels, per ASTM D6584. These values indicate efficient glyceride conversion, effective purification and high catalytic performance of the heterogeneous transesterification system. Interestingly, the catalyst can be reused up to the 6th cycle with desirable ester yield of 87.55% without any significant loss of activity due to creation of a more stable composite structure (Ca–O–Si bond) that maintains its integrity and minimizes the leaching of its active site. Finally, agro-wastes materials offer novel heterogeneous catalysts for cost-effective biodiesel production and a waste to wealth strategy towards circular economy and sustainable development.

Keywords

Agro-wastes Nannochloropsis microalgae Heterogeneous catalysts Silicon oxide Sustainable biodiesel production
(1)
Johnson, F. A.; Patel, B. Sustainable Microalgae Biodiesel Production Using Heterogeneous Agro-Wastes Catalyst on Silicon Oxide Support. ajc 2026, 38, 2703-2709.
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)
BibTeX
References
  1. J. Wang and W. Azam, Geosci. Front., 15, 101757 (2024); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2023.101757
  2. K. Liu, G. Wei, Y. Zhu, L. Zhang and Z. He, J. Environ. Chem. Eng., 11, 111015 (2023); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2023.111015
  3. C.S. Damian, D. Yuvarajan, T. Raja, G. Choubey and D.B. Munuswamy, Results Eng., 24, 103453 (2024); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103453
  4. Y. Devarajan and D.C. Selvam, Results Eng., 24, 103196 (2024); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103196
  5. A.B. Falowo, J.O. Ojediran, M. Olumuyiwa, R. Eghianruwa and E. Betiku, Results Eng., 23, 102613 (2024); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.102613
  6. A. Bamisaye, A.R. Ige, A.I. Adegoke, M.A. Idowu and C.M. Elinge, Biomass Convers. Biorefin., 14, 27419 (2022); https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-022-03397-x
  7. R. Jayabal, Results Eng., 25, 103659 (2025); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103659
  8. P.A.L. Anawe and J.A. Folayan, Data Brief, 21, 1533 (2018); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2018.10.166
  9. K. Kunanon, C. Sakkampang, P. Suwunnasopha and S. Poojeera, Case Stud. Chem. Environ. Eng., 7, 100328 (2023); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2023.100328
  10. M. Faried, M. Samer, E. Abdelsalam, R.S. Yousef, Y.A. Attia and A.S. Ali, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 79, 893 (2017); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.199
  11. M.K. Enamala, S. Enamala, M. Chavali, J. Donepudi, R. Yadavalli, B. Kolapalli, T.V. Aradhyula, J. Velpuri and C. Kuppam, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 94, 49 (2018); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.05.012
  12. S.H. Shah, I.A. Raja, M. Rizwan, N. Rashid, Q. Mahmood, F.A. Shah and A. Pervez, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 81, 76 (2018); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.07.044
  13. S. Zhang, L. Zhang, G. Xu, F. Li and X. Li, Front. Microbiol., 13, 970028 (2022); https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.970028
  14. E. Neag, Z. Stupar, S.A. Maicaneanu and C. Roman, Energies, 16, 1129 (2023); https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031129
  15. K. Gaurav, K. Neeti and R. Singh, Green Technol. Sustain., 2, 100060 (2024); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.grets.2023.100060
  16. L.D. Zhu, E. Hiltunen, E. Antila, J.J. Zhong, Z.H. Yuan and Z.M. Wang, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 30, 1035 (2014); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.11.003
  17. T. Mathimani and A. Pugazhendhi, Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol., 17, 326 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2018.12.007
  18. A.G. Olabi, N. Shehata, E. Taha, C. Rodriguez, R. Chinyere, C. Russell and M.A. Abdelkareem, Sci. Total Environ., 854, 158689 (2023); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158689
  19. J.V. Gerpen, Fuel Process. Technol., 86, 1097 (2005); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2004.11.005
  20. T.A. Degfie, T.T. Mamo and Y.S. Mekonnen, Sci. Rep., 9, 18982 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-55403-4
  21. V. Mandari and S. Devarai, BioEnergy Res. (2021); https://doi.org/10.1007/s12155-021-10333-w
  22. N.S. Talha and S. Sulaiman, ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci., 11, 439 (2016).
  23. V.B. Jayanna, M.V. Kulkarni, K.N. Krishnamurthy, G.C. Manjunath Patel, H.S. Nagendra Prasad, D.S. Olusegun and E. Linul, Results Eng., 25, 104359 (2025); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2025.104359
  24. D.C. Selvam, Y. Devarajan and T. Raja, Results Eng., 25, 104000 (2025); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2025.104000
  25. J.S. Ali, H.L. Rutto, T. Seodigeng and S.L. Kiambi, Results Eng., 22, 102082 (2024); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.102082
  26. J.A. Folayan and B. Patel, Results Eng., 27, 105872 (2025); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2025.105872
  27. I.B. Laskar, K. Rajkumari, R. Gupta, S. Chatterjee, B. Paul and S.L. Rokhum, RSC Adv., 8, 20131 (2018); https://doi.org/10.1039/C8RA02397B
  28. I.M. Rizwanul Fattah, H.C. Ong, T.M.I. Mahlia, M. Mofijur, A.S. Silitonga, S.M. Ashrafur Rahman and A. Ahmad, Front. Energy Res., 8, 101 (2020); https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2020.00101
  29. R. Jayabal, Results Eng., 24, 103668 (2024); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103668
  30. G.V. Enguilo, R. Romero, R.M. Gomez-Espinosa, A. Romero, S.L. Martínez and R. Natividad, ACS Omega, 6, 24092 (2021); https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.1c03586
  31. F.A. Ansari, A. Shriwastav, S.K. Gupta, I. Rawat, A. Guldhe and F. Bux, Bioresour. Technol., 179, 559 (2015); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.12.047
  32. A. Guldhe, C.V.R. Moura, P. Singh, I. Rawat, E.M. Moura, Y. Sharma and F. Bux, Renew. Energy, 105, 175 (2017); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.12.053
  33. F. Cheng and X. Li, Catalysts, 8, 346 (2018); https://doi.org/10.3390/catal8090346
  34. J. Calero, D. Luna, E.D. Sancho, C. Luna, F.M. Bautista, A.A. Romero, A. Posadillo and C. Verdugo, Fuel, 122, 94 (2014); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.01.033
  35. R. Foroutan, S.J. Peighambardoust, R. Mohammadi, S.H. Peighambardoust and B. Ramavandi, Results Eng., 22, 102005 (2024); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.102005
  36. A. Agrwal, P. Rai and V. Kumar, Top. Catal., 68, 2213 (2025); https://doi.org/10.1007/s11244-025-02118-8
  37. R. Foroutan, R. Mohammadi and B. Ramavandi, Fuel, 291, 120151 (2021); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.120151
  38. P.S. Sumitha, G. Rajalakshmi, S. Komathi, R. Radhakrishnan and R. Renjimol, Int. J. Creat. Res. Thoughts, 2, 466 (2018).
  39. CSIRO, Modified BG-11 Medium for Cyanobacterial Cultures (2021); https://research.csiro.au/anaccmethods/wp-content/uploads/sites/337/2021/03/BG-11_mod_CSIRO_2021.pdf
  40. International Organization for Standardization, Oilseeds-Determination of Oil Content, ISO 659:2004, pp. 1-12 (2004).
  41. J. Ntalikwa, J. Renew. Energy, 2021, 9221168 (2021); https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/9221168
  42. S. Nasreen, M. Nafees, A.L. Qureshi, M.S. Asad, A. Sadiq and D. Ali, Review of Catalytic Transesterification Methods for Biodiesel Production, In: Biofuels-State of Development, IntechOpen (2018).
  43. H. Li, Y. Wang and X. Ma, Chem. Eng. J., 391, 123549 (2020); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.123549
  44. V. Mandari and S.K. Devarai, BioEnergy Res. (2021); https://doi.org/10.1007/s12155-021-10333-w
  45. R. Nayab, M. Imran, M. Ramzan, M. Tariq, M.B. Taj, M.N. Akhtar and H. Iqbal, Fuel, 328, 125254 (2022); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.125254
  46. J. Coates, in eds.: R.A. Meyers, Interpretation of Infrared Spectra, A Practical Approach: In Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry, John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, U.K., pp. 10815-10837 (2000).
  47. P.A.L. Anawe and A.J. Folayan, Int. J. Chem. Eng., 2018, 6418090 (2018); https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/6418090
  48. R. Foroutan, S.J. Peighambardoust, R. Mohammadi, S.H. Peighambardoust and B. Ramavandi, Environ. Technol. Innov., 32, 103307 (2023); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2023.103307
  49. R. Foroutan, S.J. Peighambardoust, R. Mohammadi, S.H. Peighambardoust and B. Ramavandi, Fuel, 322, 124181 (2022); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.124181
  50. E. Abdala, O. Nur and M.A. Mustafa, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 59, 19235 (2020); https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.0c04118
  51. R. Katiyar, B.R. Gurjar, S. Biswas, V. Pruthi, N. Kumar and P. Kumar, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 72, 1083 (2017); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.10.028
  52. R. Foroutan, R. Mohammadi, J. Razeghi and B. Ramavandi, Renew. Energy, 168, 1207 (2021); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.12.094
  53. J. Nisar, R. Razaq, M. Farooq, M. Iqbal, R.A. Khan, M. Sayed, A. Shah and I.U. Rahman, Renew. Energy, 101, 111 (2017); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.08.048
  54. E.I. Bello, A.O. Akinola, F. Otu and J.J. Owoyemi, Br. J. Appl. Sci. Technol., 3, 1055 (2013); https://doi.org/10.9734/BJAST/2013/1680
  55. G. Knothe, Fuel Process. Technol., 86, 1059 (2005); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2004.11.002
  56. ASTM, Standard Specification for Biodiesel Fuel (B100) Blend Stock for Distillate Fuels, pp. 1131-1136 (2009).
  57. D.F. Aktas, J.S. Lee, B.J. Little, R.I. Ray, I.A. Davidova, C.N. Lyles and J.M. Suflita, Energy Fuels, 24, 2924 (2010); https://doi.org/10.1021/ef100084j
Read More
Author biographies is not available.
Crossref
Scopus
Google Scholar
Europe PMC
Download
PDF
Statistic
Read Counter : 1 Download : 3
PlumX