Copyright (c) 2026 Dibakar Deka
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Application of Azolla pinnata Biochar as a Green Low-Cost Solid Catalyst in the Production of Biodiesel from Tamarind Kernel Oil
Corresponding Author(s) : Dibakar Chandra Deka
Asian Journal of Chemistry,
Vol. 38 No. 8 (2026): Vol 38, Issue 8 (2026)
Abstract
This work reports a heterogeneous base catalyst obtained from the waste biomass Azolla pinnata as an effective catalyst in the transesterification of tamarind kernel oil (TKO) for biodiesel generation. The biochar catalyst was generated by pyrolysis of the ash obtained from burning the dry A. pinnata waste at 500 ºC for 3 h and characterised before and after use using instrumental techniques like powder XRD, FESEM, EDX, BET and TGA analysis. The main components of the catalyst are KCl, NaCl and SiO2 along with significant amounts of MgO, CaO and CaCO3. The TKO was extracted from tamarind seeds using different solvents out of which, n-hexane was found to be the best with an average oil yield of 19.3% in 5 h. The catalyst demonstrated remarkable catalytic efficacy in transforming tamarind kernel oil into biodiesel, achieving a 98% yield at ambient temperature under optimal circumstances of 10:1 methanol-to-oil ratio and 20 wt.% catalyst over a reaction period of 3 h. The catalyst was used up to the third consecutive cycle of the reaction with only minimal loss in catalytic activity. The catalyst is eco-friendly, non-toxic, biodegradable, recoverable, reusable and cost-effective.
Keywords
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)BibTeX
- A. Jess, Energy Policy, 38, 4663 (2010); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2010.04.026
- Y. He, S. Wang and K.K. Lai, Energy Econ., 32, 868 (2010); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2009.12.005
- B. Abdullah, S.A.F. Syed Muhammad, Z. Shokravi, S. Ismail, K.A. Kassim, A.N. Mahmood and M.M.A. Aziz, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 107, 37 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.02.018
- Y.S. Rao and K.M. Mathew, Tamarind, 2, 512 (2012); https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857095688.512
- Z. Wei, C. Xu and B. Li, Bioresour. Technol., 100, 2883 (2009); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2008.12.039
- N. Nakatani, H. Takamori, K. Takeda and H. Sakugawa, Bioresour. Technol., 100, 1510 (2009); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2008.09.007
- T.A. Lumpkin and D.L. Plucknett, Econ. Bot., 34, 111 (1980); https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02858627
- V. Vadery, B.N. Narayanan, R.M. Ramakrishnan, S. Sugunan, S.K. Cherikkallinmel, D.P. Narayanan and S. Sasidharan, Energy, 70, 588 (2014); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.04.045
- J. Wang, S. Xing, Y. Huang, P. Fan, J. Fu, G. Yang, L. Yang and P. Lv, Appl. Energy, 190, 703 (2017); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.01.004
- S. Hu, Y. Wang and H. Han, Biomass Bioenergy, 35, 3627 (2011); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2011.05.009
- Y.B. Cho and G. Seo, Bioresour. Technol., 101, 8515 (2010); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.06.082
- P.L. Boey, G.P. Maniam and S.A. Hamid, J. Oleo Sci., 58, 499 (2009); https://doi.org/10.5650/jos.58.499
- S.L. Lee, Y.C. Wong, Y.P. Tan and S.Y. Yew, Energy Convers. Manage., 93, 282 (2015); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.12.067
- T. Dong, D. Gao, C. Miao, X. Yu, C. Degan, M. Garcia-Pérez, B. Rasco, S.S. Sablani and S. Chen, Energy Convers. Manage., 105, 1389 (2015); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.06.072
- A.E. Atabani, A.S. Silitonga, H.C. Ong, T.M.I. Mahlia, H.H. Masjuki, I.A. Badruddin and H. Fayaz, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 18, 211 (2013); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.10.013
- G. Pathak, D. Das, K. Rajkumari and S.L. Rokhum, Green Chem., 20, 2365 (2018); https://doi.org/10.1039/C8GC00071A
- W. Suryaputra, I. Winata, N. Indraswati and S. Ismadji, Renew. Energy, 50, 795 (2013); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2012.08.060
- M. Safar, B.-J. Lin, W.-H. Chen, D. Langauer, J.-S. Chang, H. Raclavska, A. Pétrissans, P. Rousset and M. Pétrissans, Appl. Energy, 235, 346 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.10.065
- N. Viriya-empikul, P. Krasae, B. Puttasawat, B. Yoosuk, N. Chollacoop and K. Faungnawakij, Bioresour. Technol., 101, 3765 (2010); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.12.079
- R. Chakraborty, S. Bepari and A. Banerjee, Chem. Eng. J., 165, 798 (2010); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2010.10.019
- P.L. Boey, S. Ganesan, G.P. Maniam and M. Khairuddean, Catal. Today, 190, 117 (2012); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2011.11.027
- N. Girish, S.P. Niju, K.M. Meera Sheriffa Begum and N. Anantharaman, Fuel, 111, 653 (2013); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2013.03.069
- R. Rezaei, M. Mohadesi and G.R. Moradi, Fuel, 109, 534 (2013); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2013.03.004
- A. Buasri, P. Worawanitchaphong, S. Trongyong and V. Loryuenyong, APCBEE Procedia, 8, 216 (2014); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcbee.2014.03.030
- M.D. Kostić, A. Bazargan, O.S. Stamenković, V.B. Veljković and G. McKay, Fuel, 163, 304 (2016); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.09.042
- O. Nur Syazwani, U. Rashid and Y.H. Taufiq Yap, Energy Convers. Manage., 101, 749 (2015); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.05.075
- S. Sirisomboonchai, M. Abuduwayiti, G. Guan, C. Samart, S. Abliz, X. Hao, K. Kusakabe and A. Abudula, Energy Convers. Manage., 95, 242 (2015); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.02.044
- B. Nath, B. Das, P. Kalita and S. Basumatary, J. Clean. Prod., 239, 118112 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118112
- S. Palitsakun, K. Koonkuer, B. Topool, A. Seubsai and K. Sudsakorn, Catal. Commun., 149, 106233 (2021); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catcom.2020.106233
- G.M. Wagner, Bot. Rev., 63, 1 (1997); https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02857915
References
A. Jess, Energy Policy, 38, 4663 (2010); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2010.04.026
Y. He, S. Wang and K.K. Lai, Energy Econ., 32, 868 (2010); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2009.12.005
B. Abdullah, S.A.F. Syed Muhammad, Z. Shokravi, S. Ismail, K.A. Kassim, A.N. Mahmood and M.M.A. Aziz, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 107, 37 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.02.018
Y.S. Rao and K.M. Mathew, Tamarind, 2, 512 (2012); https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857095688.512
Z. Wei, C. Xu and B. Li, Bioresour. Technol., 100, 2883 (2009); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2008.12.039
N. Nakatani, H. Takamori, K. Takeda and H. Sakugawa, Bioresour. Technol., 100, 1510 (2009); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2008.09.007
T.A. Lumpkin and D.L. Plucknett, Econ. Bot., 34, 111 (1980); https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02858627
V. Vadery, B.N. Narayanan, R.M. Ramakrishnan, S. Sugunan, S.K. Cherikkallinmel, D.P. Narayanan and S. Sasidharan, Energy, 70, 588 (2014); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.04.045
J. Wang, S. Xing, Y. Huang, P. Fan, J. Fu, G. Yang, L. Yang and P. Lv, Appl. Energy, 190, 703 (2017); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.01.004
S. Hu, Y. Wang and H. Han, Biomass Bioenergy, 35, 3627 (2011); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2011.05.009
Y.B. Cho and G. Seo, Bioresour. Technol., 101, 8515 (2010); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.06.082
P.L. Boey, G.P. Maniam and S.A. Hamid, J. Oleo Sci., 58, 499 (2009); https://doi.org/10.5650/jos.58.499
S.L. Lee, Y.C. Wong, Y.P. Tan and S.Y. Yew, Energy Convers. Manage., 93, 282 (2015); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.12.067
T. Dong, D. Gao, C. Miao, X. Yu, C. Degan, M. Garcia-Pérez, B. Rasco, S.S. Sablani and S. Chen, Energy Convers. Manage., 105, 1389 (2015); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.06.072
A.E. Atabani, A.S. Silitonga, H.C. Ong, T.M.I. Mahlia, H.H. Masjuki, I.A. Badruddin and H. Fayaz, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 18, 211 (2013); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.10.013
G. Pathak, D. Das, K. Rajkumari and S.L. Rokhum, Green Chem., 20, 2365 (2018); https://doi.org/10.1039/C8GC00071A
W. Suryaputra, I. Winata, N. Indraswati and S. Ismadji, Renew. Energy, 50, 795 (2013); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2012.08.060
M. Safar, B.-J. Lin, W.-H. Chen, D. Langauer, J.-S. Chang, H. Raclavska, A. Pétrissans, P. Rousset and M. Pétrissans, Appl. Energy, 235, 346 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.10.065
N. Viriya-empikul, P. Krasae, B. Puttasawat, B. Yoosuk, N. Chollacoop and K. Faungnawakij, Bioresour. Technol., 101, 3765 (2010); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.12.079
R. Chakraborty, S. Bepari and A. Banerjee, Chem. Eng. J., 165, 798 (2010); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2010.10.019
P.L. Boey, S. Ganesan, G.P. Maniam and M. Khairuddean, Catal. Today, 190, 117 (2012); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2011.11.027
N. Girish, S.P. Niju, K.M. Meera Sheriffa Begum and N. Anantharaman, Fuel, 111, 653 (2013); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2013.03.069
R. Rezaei, M. Mohadesi and G.R. Moradi, Fuel, 109, 534 (2013); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2013.03.004
A. Buasri, P. Worawanitchaphong, S. Trongyong and V. Loryuenyong, APCBEE Procedia, 8, 216 (2014); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcbee.2014.03.030
M.D. Kostić, A. Bazargan, O.S. Stamenković, V.B. Veljković and G. McKay, Fuel, 163, 304 (2016); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.09.042
O. Nur Syazwani, U. Rashid and Y.H. Taufiq Yap, Energy Convers. Manage., 101, 749 (2015); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.05.075
S. Sirisomboonchai, M. Abuduwayiti, G. Guan, C. Samart, S. Abliz, X. Hao, K. Kusakabe and A. Abudula, Energy Convers. Manage., 95, 242 (2015); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.02.044
B. Nath, B. Das, P. Kalita and S. Basumatary, J. Clean. Prod., 239, 118112 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118112
S. Palitsakun, K. Koonkuer, B. Topool, A. Seubsai and K. Sudsakorn, Catal. Commun., 149, 106233 (2021); https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catcom.2020.106233
G.M. Wagner, Bot. Rev., 63, 1 (1997); https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02857915
