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Characterization of Mughal Bricks from Jahangir Tomb, Lahore-Pakistan
Corresponding Author(s) : S. Gulzar
Asian Journal of Chemistry,
Vol. 25 No. 6 (2013): Vol 25 Issue 6
Abstract
Jahangir tomb, which was constructed during the Mughal era in the subcontinent, is one of the remarkable monuments in the city of Lahore, Pakistan. This particular tomb is representative of Mughal tomb architecture followed by the Persian traditions. In this study, the brick samples were studied employing chemical, mineralogical and micro-structural techniques (X-ray florescence, optical microscopy, SEM-EDS and X-ray diffraction) to determine their characteristics which in turn will help formulate the future conservation strategy for compatible materials. The Mughal bricks showed high content of SiO2 (60-70 %), Al2O3 (14-16 %) and Fe2O3 (5.5-7.5 %) with low amounts of Na2O (1-1.5 %), K2O (3-3.5 %), MgO (2.3 %) and CaO (2-2.5 %). The bricks also showed low density, high porosity and were produced from raw materials containing calcium poor clays fired at low temperatures. New bricks to be used in restoration works of this tomb should be chemically and physically compatible with the existing masonry. New bricks must therefore be produced by using Ca-poor clays with compatible chemical characteristics, traditional production techniques and heating at low temperatures (ca. 850 ºC).
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- J. Jokilehto, A History of Architectural Conservation, ButterworthHeinemann, Oxford, pp. 120-367 (1999).
- B. Fielden, Guidelines for Conservation-A Technical manual, The Indian National Trust for Arts and Cultural Heritage, Delhi, pp. 55-56 (1989).
- S. Gulzar, M.Sc. Thesis, Environmental Effects on Cultural Heritage: Shahdara Complex-Lahore, University of the Punjab, Lahore, pp. 57-89 (2004).
- R. Nath, History of Mughal Architecture, Abhiman Publications, Printers Hans Raj Gupta and Sons, Anand Parbat Publishers, New Dehli, pp. 35-86 (1985); S. Gulzar, M.N. Chaudhry and Jean-Pierre Burg, Asian J. Chem., 25, 133 (2013)
- O.Z. Özkaya and H. Böke, Mater Charact., 60, 995 (2009).
- U.S. Elif and H. Böke, Cem. Concr. Res., 36, 115 (2006).
- G.K. Bowler, Br. Ceram. Proc., 2, 359 (1999).
- A. Hasan, The Art and Science of Brick Making, edn. 1, pp. 1-10 (1999).
- S. Chandra, History of Architecture and Ancient Building Materials in India, New Dehli, pp. 300-412 (2003).
- G.C. Robinson, Characterization of Bricks and Their Resistance to Deterioration Mechanisms, Conservation of Historic Stone Buildings and Monuments, pp. 145-62 (1982).
- K. Elert, G. Cultrone, C. Rodriguez-Navarro and E.S. Pardo, J. Cultural Heritage, 4, 91 (2004).
- G. Cultrone, E. Sebastian, K. Elert, M.J. de la Torre, O. Cazalla and C. Rodriguez-Navarro, J. Eur. Ceramic Soc., 24, 547 (2004).
- G. Velraj, R. Sudha1 and R. Hemamalini, Recent Res. Sci. Technol., 2, 89 (2010).
- W. Hausler, Firing of Clays Studied by X-Ray Diffraction and Mossbauer Spectroscopy, Hyperfine Interactions, 154 pp. 121-141(2004).
- P.E. Grattan-Bellew and G.G. Litvan, Am. Ceramic Soc. Bull., 57, 493 (1978).
- G. Brown, In ed.: G.W. Brindley, X-Ray Diffraction and Crystal Structures of Clay Minerals, Mineralogical Society, London, Ch. 5, p. 157 (1951); G. Brown, The X-Ray Identification and Crystal Structures of Clay Minerals, Mineralogical Society-Clay Minerals Groups, London, pp. 208-240 (1961).
- M.S. Akhtar, Soil Mineralogy and Potassium Quantity/Intensity Relations in Three Alluvial Soils from Pakistan, Ph.D. Thesis, A & A University, Texas, p. 55 (1989)
- R.E. Grim and G. Kublicki, Bull. Soc. France Ceram., 36, 21 (1957).
- P. Cardiano, S. Loppola, C. De Stefano, A. Pettignano, S. Sergi and P. Piraino, Anal. Chim. Acta, 519, 103 (2004).
- E. Bolognesi, B. Fabbri, M. Macchiarola and P. Kotas, Key Engineering Materials, DOI 10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.264-268.2383 Citation E, 264 (2004).
- G. Bianchini, E. Marrocchino, A. Moretti and C. Vaccaro, ChemicalMineralogical Characterization of Historical Bricks from Ferrara: An Integrated Bulk and Micro-Analytical Approach, doi: 10.1144/ GSL.SP.2006.257.01.10 Geological Society, London, Special Publications January 1, Vol. 257, pp. 127-140 (2006).
- S.M. Mehdi, A.M. Ranjha, S. Akhtar, M.K. Tanvir and G. Hassan, Int. J. Agric. Biol., 1560-8530/2000/02-4-364-368.
- M. Ahmed, J. Ryan and R.C. Peeth, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 41, 1162 (1977).
- S. Ahmad, Y. Iqbal and F. Ghani, J. Pak. Mater. Soc., 2, 1 (2008).
- J. Amjad, M.Phil. Thesis, Investigation of Phases in Soils Used for Brick-Making, University of Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan pp. 1-6 (2000).
- C.J. McConville and E.W. Lee, J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 88, 2267 (2005).
- J. Warren, Conservation of Brick, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford (1999).
- G. Cultrone, C.R. Navarro, E. Sebastian, O. Cazalla and M.J. de la Tone, Eur. J. Mineral., 13, 621 (2001).
- E.R. Segnit and C.A. Anderson, Trans. Br. Ceram. Soc., 71, 85 (1972).
References
J. Jokilehto, A History of Architectural Conservation, ButterworthHeinemann, Oxford, pp. 120-367 (1999).
B. Fielden, Guidelines for Conservation-A Technical manual, The Indian National Trust for Arts and Cultural Heritage, Delhi, pp. 55-56 (1989).
S. Gulzar, M.Sc. Thesis, Environmental Effects on Cultural Heritage: Shahdara Complex-Lahore, University of the Punjab, Lahore, pp. 57-89 (2004).
R. Nath, History of Mughal Architecture, Abhiman Publications, Printers Hans Raj Gupta and Sons, Anand Parbat Publishers, New Dehli, pp. 35-86 (1985); S. Gulzar, M.N. Chaudhry and Jean-Pierre Burg, Asian J. Chem., 25, 133 (2013)
O.Z. Özkaya and H. Böke, Mater Charact., 60, 995 (2009).
U.S. Elif and H. Böke, Cem. Concr. Res., 36, 115 (2006).
G.K. Bowler, Br. Ceram. Proc., 2, 359 (1999).
A. Hasan, The Art and Science of Brick Making, edn. 1, pp. 1-10 (1999).
S. Chandra, History of Architecture and Ancient Building Materials in India, New Dehli, pp. 300-412 (2003).
G.C. Robinson, Characterization of Bricks and Their Resistance to Deterioration Mechanisms, Conservation of Historic Stone Buildings and Monuments, pp. 145-62 (1982).
K. Elert, G. Cultrone, C. Rodriguez-Navarro and E.S. Pardo, J. Cultural Heritage, 4, 91 (2004).
G. Cultrone, E. Sebastian, K. Elert, M.J. de la Torre, O. Cazalla and C. Rodriguez-Navarro, J. Eur. Ceramic Soc., 24, 547 (2004).
G. Velraj, R. Sudha1 and R. Hemamalini, Recent Res. Sci. Technol., 2, 89 (2010).
W. Hausler, Firing of Clays Studied by X-Ray Diffraction and Mossbauer Spectroscopy, Hyperfine Interactions, 154 pp. 121-141(2004).
P.E. Grattan-Bellew and G.G. Litvan, Am. Ceramic Soc. Bull., 57, 493 (1978).
G. Brown, In ed.: G.W. Brindley, X-Ray Diffraction and Crystal Structures of Clay Minerals, Mineralogical Society, London, Ch. 5, p. 157 (1951); G. Brown, The X-Ray Identification and Crystal Structures of Clay Minerals, Mineralogical Society-Clay Minerals Groups, London, pp. 208-240 (1961).
M.S. Akhtar, Soil Mineralogy and Potassium Quantity/Intensity Relations in Three Alluvial Soils from Pakistan, Ph.D. Thesis, A & A University, Texas, p. 55 (1989)
R.E. Grim and G. Kublicki, Bull. Soc. France Ceram., 36, 21 (1957).
P. Cardiano, S. Loppola, C. De Stefano, A. Pettignano, S. Sergi and P. Piraino, Anal. Chim. Acta, 519, 103 (2004).
E. Bolognesi, B. Fabbri, M. Macchiarola and P. Kotas, Key Engineering Materials, DOI 10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.264-268.2383 Citation E, 264 (2004).
G. Bianchini, E. Marrocchino, A. Moretti and C. Vaccaro, ChemicalMineralogical Characterization of Historical Bricks from Ferrara: An Integrated Bulk and Micro-Analytical Approach, doi: 10.1144/ GSL.SP.2006.257.01.10 Geological Society, London, Special Publications January 1, Vol. 257, pp. 127-140 (2006).
S.M. Mehdi, A.M. Ranjha, S. Akhtar, M.K. Tanvir and G. Hassan, Int. J. Agric. Biol., 1560-8530/2000/02-4-364-368.
M. Ahmed, J. Ryan and R.C. Peeth, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 41, 1162 (1977).
S. Ahmad, Y. Iqbal and F. Ghani, J. Pak. Mater. Soc., 2, 1 (2008).
J. Amjad, M.Phil. Thesis, Investigation of Phases in Soils Used for Brick-Making, University of Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan pp. 1-6 (2000).
C.J. McConville and E.W. Lee, J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 88, 2267 (2005).
J. Warren, Conservation of Brick, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford (1999).
G. Cultrone, C.R. Navarro, E. Sebastian, O. Cazalla and M.J. de la Tone, Eur. J. Mineral., 13, 621 (2001).
E.R. Segnit and C.A. Anderson, Trans. Br. Ceram. Soc., 71, 85 (1972).